The Crusades
Context
We begin in the 7th century on the Arabian Peninsula. Following the emergence of Islam, the Arabs embark on a series of conquests and, within a century, establish an immense caliphate stretching from Central Asia to the Iberian Peninsula. The Mediterranean finds itself divided, with Muslims in the south and Christians in the north. The Christians themselves are divided between the Latin Church in the West, and the Greek Orthodox Church, which is mainly present in the Eastern Roman Empire, better known today as the Byzantine Empire. The situation stabilizes, and Christians are able to make their pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the holy city of the three great monotheistic religions. Towards the end of the 10th century in Central Asia, a Turk chieftain named Seljuk settles in Transoxiana, and converts to Sunni Islam. Later, his descendants, known as the Seljuk Turks, conquer Shiite Persia, and then take Jerusalem from the Fatimid caliphate, also Shiite. Christian pilgrims are then subjected to restrictions and persecutions. Further north, the Turks also establish themselves in Anatolia, up to the gates of Constantinople. Emperor Alexios I Komnenos calls on the West for help. Pope Urban II sees an opportunity to extend his power in the East, and convenes a council in Clermont. There he makes a fiery speech, calling on Christians to go and deliver the holy places from Islamic rule, promising to absolve those who do so of their sins. Thousands of people prepare themselves, sewing crosses on their clothes with scraps of cloth, earning them the name “crusaders”.
The People's Crusade
Several groups set off separately. On the one hand, there is the Crusade led by nobles that is mainly composed of well-armed and equipped knights. On the other, there is the so-called People’s Crusade, made up mainly of non-combatants, including women and children. Some of these groups, less well-equipped, set about pillaging on the way, and begin slaughtering the Jews they consider responsible for Christ's death. But when they reach Hungary, the local army decimates them. Alexios I takes charge of the survivors of the People’s Crusade, housing them in a camp at Civetot, on the other side of the Bosphorus. But, here too, the Crusaders begin to pillage the surrounding area, right up to the gates of Nicaea, the capital of the Turkish Sultanate of Rum. In response, local troops counter-attack and wipe them out. Only around 2,000 survivors are repatriated by the Byzantine fleet to Constantinople, where they are joined by the noble crusades who departed later. Alexios I, who had hoped for mercenary help, is surprised and frightened to see the arrival of a real Latin army. He then negotiates with the Crusaders to receive the territories they will conquer.
The First Crusade
In 1097, the Crusade leaves Constantinople. After bringing down Nicaea, it reaches the gates of the great city of Antioch, where it begins a long and difficult siege. But while on paper the Seljuk empire is immense, in reality it is divided into numerous principalities that are in perpetual competition. Antioch then receives only minor assistance from its neighbors. After a seven-month siege, the city falls. The Crusaders then take Marat, where they commit a terrible massacre. Fear of the Crusaders quickly spreads, prompting many towns to submit in order to avoid a similar fate. To the south, Fatimid Egypt takes advantage of the situation to retake Jerusalem, and then offers an alliance to the Crusaders, promising them complete freedom of worship in the city. But the offer is rejected, and the Crusaders arrive at the gates of the city and begin a siege. On July 15, 1099, Jerusalem falls. The city's Muslim and Jewish populations are massacred, with the scale of the slaughter varying according to different sources.
The Crusader states
With no support from Alexios I, the Crusaders cede no territory, and create their own Latin States, with the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, headed by Godfrey of Bouillon. But the latter soon dies, and is replaced by his brother, Baldwin of Boulogne. With the Crusade over, many knights return to Europe, leaving the Crusader armies severely outnumbered. The Pope then tries to reinforce them by launching a new Crusade, but while crossing Anatolia, the three different groups are all wiped out. The Crusader states nevertheless manage to repel several Fatimid offensives in the south, and take advantage of divisions and conflicts between Seljuk princes to extend and consolidate their possessions. They can also count on the maritime republics of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, which supply them by sea, and who intend to take advantage of the situation to seize new commercial markets in the region. In 1109, wealthy Tripoli, in turn, falls, its immense library is burned, and the county of Tripoli is created. On the coast, only Tyre and Ascalon still resist the Crusader armies, while inland, peace is established with Aleppo and Damascus. In 1115, a powerful army arrives from Baghdad to drive out the Crusaders and establish its authority in the region. Aleppo and Damascus, unwilling to fall under Baghdad's yoke, side with the Crusader armies to repel the offensive. With the situation more or less stabilized, the order of the Knights Hospitaller is founded to care for pilgrims, and a militia of knights is set up to protect them. These knights settle on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, earning them the name of the Knights Templar.
The Second Crusade
In the north, Antioch is in constant conflict with the Byzantine Empire, which wants to take the city back. In 1143, Baldwin III ascends the throne of Jerusalem at just 13 years of age, under the regency of his mother Melisende. The governor of Aleppo and Mosul, Zengi, takes advantage of the instability to launch a surprise siege on Edessa, which falls within a month. On hearing of this, the Pope launches a new Crusade. This time, England takes part. Along the way, it stops to help the Portuguese king conquer Lisbon. For their part, the Germans, led by Conrad III of the Holy Roman Empire, and the French, led by Louis VII, set off separately for the East, with the Germans leading the way. In Anatolia, both armies are constantly harassed by the Turks, and suffer defeats. The survivors finally manage to reach Jerusalem by sea. But instead of setting off for Edessa, they attack Damascus, their best ally in the region against Nur al-Din, the heir son of Zengi, who had obtained Aleppo and Edessa. The siege fails, and the sovereigns, frustrated by their failure, return to Europe. Nur al-Din takes advantage of the situation and seizes Damascus, unifying Muslim Syria.
Saladin
After the death of Baldwin III, his brother Amalric ascends the throne. At the same time, in Egypt, two coups d'état take place in less than a year. Amalric takes advantage of the situation to begin his conquest of the caliphate. But the deposed vizier flees to Syria to ask Nur al-Din for help. The latter, who does not want to see Egypt fall into Christian hands, sends his best general, Shirkuh. After several years of battles, truces, changes of alliances, and arrangements, Shirkuh installs himself as the new Vizier of Egypt. Two months later, he dies, and is replaced by his nephew Saladin, who puts an end to the Shiite Fatimid caliphate and founds the Ayyubid dynasty. In 1174, within the span of just two months, Nur al-Din and Amalric die of disease, each leaving a minor son on the throne. Saladin takes advantage of the situation and, in less than 10 years, succeeds in unifying Egypt and Syria. In 1185, Baldwin IV dies of leprosy at the age of 24, and the following year, his heir Baldwin V dies at the age of 7. The title is then given to Guy of Lusignan, who is under the influence of the bloodthirsty Raynald of Châtillon, known for devastating Cyprus, and raiding Medina and Mecca. From his citadel at Kerak, he regularly attacks Muslim caravans passing through the area, despite a truce with Saladin. Saladin then decides to put an end to the Crusaders and gathers all his forces in Damascus.
The fall of the Crusader states
At the head of a powerful army, Saladin lays siege to Tiberias and fills all the wells on the road to the city. The Crusader army then arrives thirsty after a day's march under a blazing sun. Saladin’s army blocks access to the Sea of Galilee, and light brush fires, putting the Christians in an even more difficult situation. The Crusaders are defeated, Raynald of Châtillon is executed, and King Guy of Lusignan is taken prisoner. Saladin then exploits his victory by rapidly seizing almost all of the Crusader territories, with the exception of Tyre, Tripoli, and Antioch, who resist. In Tyre, an Italian noble, Conrad of Montferrat, disembarks with his army and repels Saladin's offensives. Saladin then tries to stir up trouble by freeing Guy of Lusignan, making him promise not to attack the Muslims again. But Conrad refuses to open the gates of Tyre to Guy of Lusignan. The latter then regroups some forces and, despite his promise, begins the siege of Ptolemais with the help of reinforcements from Europe, where a third Crusade is being prepared.
The Third Crusade
Three major groups set off. The German Crusade, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, takes the lead overland. But in Anatolia, the Emperor drowns in the Saleph river, and his army is scattered. The French and English Crusades, for their part, set off separately by sea. On the way, the English, under the command of Richard the Lionheart, stop at Cyprus, which they conquer in order to establish a new Crusader state. They then arrive to Ptolemais, which falls to the Crusaders, and is renamed Acre. Richard the Lionheart now leads the Crusade. He sets off to conquer the coast, with the assistance of a powerful fleet which follows him. But despite his successes and a major victory over Saladin's army, he does not launch an offensive towards Jerusalem, perhaps because the city is too far from the coast, thus requiring complicated supply arrangements. He then negotiates with Saladin, obtaining access to the city for Christian pilgrims and a 3-year truce, before then returning to Europe. The following year, Saladin dies, and his territory is once again divided between several heirs.
The Fourth and Fifth Crusades
In 1198, Pope Innocent III launches a new Crusade. This time, the plan is to invade Egypt, which is rich in resources, and to then organize an expedition against Jerusalem. Venice agrees to transport and supply the Crusade, in return for a substantial payment. But, unable to raise funds, the Crusaders put themselves at the service of the city and, despite the Pope's opposition, lay siege to Zadar, a former Venetian possession that has recently fallen into the hands of Christian Hungary. The expedition is then persuaded to attack Constantinople, Europe's largest city and a major competitor to Venice. After a siege, the city is sacked and pillaged, including the Orthodox churches. The Byzantine Empire is then dismantled in favor of a Latin empire and many kingdoms. This event provokes the anger of the Greeks, and marks a break between the Orthodox and the Latin churches. The Greeks of the Nicaea Empire will succeed 50 years later to take Constantinople back, and to re-establish the Byzantine Empire, albeit much weakened. Venice, for its part, is now Europe's greatest trading power. In 1213, Innocent III calls for a new Crusade. As the French knights are already crusading against the Cathars, only the King of Hungary and the Duke of Austria take part. After a setback on the Golan Heights, they change their strategy and set sail for Egypt, where they begin a surprise siege of Damietta. After the fall of the city, the Crusaders refuse the Sultan's offer to exchange Damietta for Jerusalem and continue their conquest. But when they reach the gates of Mansoura, the Muslims take advantage of a Nile flood to open the dikes, flooding the delta. The Crusaders find themselves stranded on a muddy strip of land. To avoid being massacred, they capitulate, surrender Damietta, and depart.
The Sixth Crusade and the Barons' Crusade
In 1225, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II marries the daughter of the King of Jerusalem and seizes the throne. The Pope orders him to embark on a Crusade, but Frederick II is slow to do so, and is consequently excommunicated. Frederick II takes a keen interest in Islam and the Arab world, and even engages in correspondence with the Egyptian Sultan Al-Kamil. The latter is at war with his Syrian brothers, and is not averse to the idea of ceding Jerusalem to the Crusaders in exchange for an alliance, which would also establish a border. Frederick II disembarks at Acre with a small army and, without a fight, receives Jerusalem, whose fortifications have been dismantled. A 10-year truce is even signed. He stays in the city for three days, and then returns to Europe, leaving Jerusalem unprotected, and the kingdom without a local king. As a result, the Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, the more recent German Teutonic Order, and the Italian Republics are all free to pursue their own policies. In 1238, as the 10-year truce comes to an end, the Pope becomes concerned with Jerusalem and calls for a new Crusade. With Frederick II opposed, it is mostly the French who get under way. On their arrival at Acre, the Emir of Kerak easily conquers Jerusalem. But the Crusaders take advantage of the fratricidal wars between Syria and Egypt to win back many territories, including Jerusalem, through a game of alliances.
The Seventh Crusade
To the east, the Mongol Empire dominates Persia, and has since 1221. Since that time, Iranian mercenaries have roamed the land, pillaging everything in their path. In 1244, after an alliance with Egypt, they ravage Jerusalem, and the region comes under Egyptian control. King Louis IX of France, who later will be canonized, launches his Crusade to retake the city. He sets his sights on Egypt, and quickly captures Damietta. Again, the sultan offers him an exchange for Jerusalem and the surrounding area, but Louis IX refuses, and continues his conquest. In Mansoura he comes up against the Mamluks, slaves from the central steppes of Eurasia who are trained for war, and who form the Sultan's personal army. They repel the French, and capture the king. They then stage a coup and establish the Mamluk Sultanate. Louis IX is freed in exchange for Damietta and the payment of a ransom. The latter goes to Acre for a few years to try to re-establish order.
The Mongols
In the east, the Mongols prepare a new offensive. Hulegu Khan, the ruler of Persia, is charged with extending his territory as far as Egypt. In 1258 his army seizes Baghdad, massacres the population, and kills the Abbasid caliph. The Mongols then move into Syria, taking Aleppo and Damascus. To avoid being massacred, the Crusader states choose to submit, with the exception of Acre, which remains neutral. The kingdom is torn apart by a war between the Venetians, allied with the Knights Templar, and the Genoese, allied with the Hospitallers. But at the same time, thousands of miles away, the Mongol emperor Möngke dies. Hulegu leaves in a hurry with the bulk of his troops to take part in a war of succession. The Mamluks take advantage of this and set off to destroy the last Mongol troops in Syria. They then take control of the region, and Baybars, their new Sultan, decides to put an end to the Crusader states. In 1268, he takes Antioch.
The end of the Crusades
Louis IX launches a new crusade, but this time directed towards Carthage, probably in an attempt to convert the local sultan to Christianity. The latter takes refuge in Tunis, awaiting Mamluk reinforcements. But, in the Crusaders' camp, diseases are spreading, and prove fatal for Louis IX. A peace agreement is then signed, and the Christians leave, in exchange for tribute and freedom of worship for the city's Christians. A few days later, Prince Edward I of England arrives with his troops as reinforcements. Realizing he is too late, he continues on to Acre, where he negotiates a truce with Baybars. At the end of the truce, the new sultan resumes the offensive, taking Tripoli Acre is now the last great Christian stronghold, but it is tolerated because trade between East and West flourishes there and benefits everyone. But, in 1291, Italian Crusaders arrive and massacre the town's Muslim merchants. This time it is too much for the Mamluks, who seize the city. Most of the Crusaders flee to Cyprus. The Teutonic Knights join the State of the Teutonic Order, a German colony founded after a crusade against the pagan Baltic peoples. On their side, after a conquest, the Hospitallers settle on the island of Rhodes. Meanwhile, the Knights Templar are abolished by the Pope. In 1522, the Ottoman Empire takes Rhodes, forcing the Hospitallers to take refuge in Malta, where they begin a naval war against the Muslims. But, in 1798, while Napoleon is on his way to Egypt, he seizes the island, and puts an end to the Knights Hospitaller. 10 years later, while he now dominates Europe, he dissolves the Teutonic Order as well.