Western Sahara

On November 06, 1975, at the call of Moroccan King Hassan II, 350,000 Moroccans cross the border to march peacefully into Spanish Sahara, holding Moroccan flags. The aim is to accelerate Spain's departure from its colony, and force it to open negotiations on the future of the territory.

In this video, let’s retrace on a map the origins and evolution of the Western Sahara conflict, which has been ongoing for almost 50 years.

Historically, north-west Africa is populated by Berber tribes. In the 7th century, the region is conquered by Arabs, who introduce Islam. In the south, the Sahara forms a huge natural frontier that is crossed by nomadic Berber tribes who organize trade between north and south. Over time, kingdoms and empires are formed, with borders varying depending on the subjugated tribes. In the mid-17th century, the Alawi dynasty establishes the Sharifian Empire. On the coasts, the Spanish have been occupying trading posts since the 15th century, fighting off many attacks. In 1859, following an attack on Ceuta, Spain sends an army to capture Tetouan. Defeated, the Sharifian Empire is forced to cede to Spain a new trading post to the south, called Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequena, which will remain uninhabited for a long time.

European colonization

Meanwhile, in Europe, the Industrial Revolution is in full swing. Demand for raw materials explodes, while the population doubles in just under a century. European powers become increasingly interested in Africa's resources and arable land. Spain then strengthen its presence on the coasts by founding new trading posts, mainly to develop fishing, and also to divert the trade routes of nomadic tribes to areas under its control. Competition quickly mounts between the European powers, who meet in Berlin to regulate colonization. A power can now lay claim to a territory, if it occupies it. New borders are drawn on maps without taking into account reality on the ground, dividing some peoples and uniting others. Thanks to its trading posts, Spain obtains recognition for a colony called Rio de Oro, located between Capes Bojador and Blanco. But only Villa Cisneros remains inhabited, mainly by fishermen, merchants, and military personnel.

Franco-Spanish domination

In the early 20th century, Spain and France meet regularly to define precise borders between their colonies, and to establish zones of influence. France gains a strong foothold in the region, and in 1912 makes the remnants of the Sharifian Empire into its protectorate of Morocco. Spain also obtains its share, and receives as protectorate the Rif in the north and Cape Juby in the south, which remain separate from the colonies of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro. But the latter, with their desert climate, attract few Spanish settlers. In 1938, after the discovery of a large water table, the town of El Aaiun is founded. On the French side, the border between the Moroccan protectorate and Algeria is not clearly defined and is regularly modified, integrating former Sharifian territories into Algeria. At the time, there is no real dispute, as the territory concerned is desert and almost uninhabited. In 1939, the Spanish Civil War comes to an end, and General Franco establishes a dictatorial regime, leaving Spain isolated on the international stage. The country tries to strengthen its influence by creating Spanish West Africa, grouping together its southern territories.

Independentist movements

After World War II, independence movements spring up everywhere. In 1954, the Algerian War begins. France, fearing the spread of war, authorizes Moroccan independence. Spain recognizes the new country, and cedes the northern part of its protectorate. But Morocco also claims to recover the territories of the former Sharifian Empire to form what it calls Greater Morocco. But in the south, Mauritanian independentists, who are also fighting against the French, also want to integrate the Spanish colonies into their future state. In Morocco, the Army of Liberation, which is not linked to the country's army, crosses the border to support independence movements in the south. In response, Spain and France launch a joint counter-offensive on land and in the air, driving out the Moroccans. Spain then agrees to cede Caps Juby to Morocco, in exchange for an end to hostilities, while the southern colonies are reunited, forming Spanish Sahara.

The Sand War

In Algeria, Morocco continues to support the independence movement, and reaches an agreement with the provisional government to reconsider the border separating them after the departure of the French. On July 5, 1962, Algeria proclaims its independence. But the new government ignores the agreement and refuses to cede territory, especially as gas and oil have recently been discovered in the Sahara. Morocco feels betrayed. Tensions rise rapidly and war breaks out. After four months of fighting, a ceasefire is signed. The border remains unchanged, and a demilitarized zone is created and monitored by Ethiopia and Mali.

Spanish Sahara

Internationally, the UN and the Organization of African Unity put increasing pressure on Spain to end colonization. The Spanish Sahara and Ifni are added to the UN list of non-self-governing territories, and resolutions are adopted calling for an immediate end to colonization, and the organization of a referendum on self-determination. Spain then cedes Ifni to Morocco, but keeps the Spanish Sahara, where it now exploits large phosphate deposits. But Morocco, Algeria, and Mauritania calm their relations, and unite in demanding Spain's departure, without agreeing on the territory's future. In 1973, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Saguia el-Hamra and Rio de Oro, abbreviated to the Polisario Front, is created, and begins an armed struggle against the Spanish, with the aim of obtaining independence for a Saharan state. In 1974, Spain announces that it will soon be holding a referendum on self-determination in the Spanish Sahara.

Morocco intervention

But Morocco's King Hassan II considers the territory to be historically part of his southern provinces, and opposes its independence. Morocco joins forces with Mauritania, which also claims part of the territory, and both request an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice. The Court rules that, despite some historical links between the Spanish Sahara, Morocco, and Mauritania, there is no link of territorial sovereignty, and the referendum should not be obstructed. Hassan II rejects the court’s advisory opinion, and makes the Spanish Sahara a national cause. He calls on the Moroccan people to march peacefully through the territory. On November 6, 1975, 350,000 Moroccans cross the border and march for three days along a few dozen kilometers. Under pressure, and with General Franco dying, Spain agrees, after negotiations, to split the Spanish Sahara in two, ceding the north to Morocco and the south to Mauritania. The Polisario Front, which had not been invited to the negotiations, opposes the agreement, and begins attacking Moroccan and Mauritanian forces that are entering the territory.

Western Sahara War

Faced with rising violence, a large part of the population flees the fighting, and takes refuge in Tindouf. Algeria, which supports the self-determination of the Saharawis, intervenes alongside the Polisario Front, and sends in reinforcements. But they are driven out by Moroccan troops at the oasis of Amgala. On February 26, 1976, Spain completes its withdrawal from what is now called Western Sahara. The following day, the Polisario Front proclaims the independence of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Although greatly outnumbered, the Saharawi fighters, who are highly mobile and know the terrain inside out, organize a war of raids and ambushes against the Moroccans and Mauritanians. Tindouf becomes their rear base, with Algeria and Libya supplying them with weapons and fuel.

The Moroccan sand wall

In the south, Mauritania, which is less well-equipped, is in trouble. The country obtains military aid from France, which also wants to secure the Zouérate iron supply route. But on July 10, 1978, a coup d'état takes place in Nouakchott. The new government signs a peace agreement with the Polisario Front, and abandons its territorial claims to Western Sahara. Morocco then annexes the Mauritanian part, and begins building a wall to block Polisario Front incursions into the territory it controls. In 1982, the Organization of African Unity accepts the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as a new member. Angered, Morocco leaves the Organization, and finds itself increasingly isolated diplomatically. In 1987, it finalizes the construction of a 6th wall, and now controls 80% of the territory. This wall, also known as the Sand Wall, is 2720 km long, and is continuously guarded by 100,000 soldiers. The conflict then bogs down, and in 1991, after 16 years of war, a ceasefire is signed and a UN mission called Minurso is sent to Laâyoune to organize a referendum on the future of the territory. But this will be blocked, and never held.

Western Sahara Autonomy Proposal

In 1994, a terrorist attack takes place in a hotel in Marrakech. Morocco accuses Algeria of involvement, and imposes a visa requirement on Algerian nationals. In response, Algeria completely closes the land border between the two countries. In the following years, Morocco relies mainly on diplomacy to make its case in the Western Sahara. In 2007, the country proposes a new plan to the UN. The territory would gain greater autonomy, with its own parliament and head of government, while remaining under Moroccan sovereignty. The UN encourages both sides to enter into negotiations. Representatives of Morocco and the Polisario Front then meet several times in the United States, but the negotiations fail, as both sides refuse to budge from their positions.

The Moroccan diplomacy

Internationally, Morocco continues to forge closer diplomatic ties, gaining increasing support for its plan for Saharan autonomy under the Moroccan flag. The country is even reinstated in the African Union. But in 2020, Moroccan forces cross the southern Sand Wall to secure and modernize the road linking Guerguerat to Mauritania, in violation of the 1991 agreements. The Polisario Front then announces the end of the ceasefire, and fighting resumes. At the same time, Donald Trump, a few days before stepping down as President of the United States, obtains normalization of relations between Morocco and Israel, in exchange for U.S. recognition of Moroccan sovereignty over the Western Sahara.

Rise of tension between Morocco and Algeria

On the strength of this major diplomatic victory, Morocco begins a more aggressive policy against supporters of the Polisario Front. In 2021, Brahim Ghali, the leader of the Polisario Front, is admitted into Spain for hospitalization for Covid-19. Morocco reacts by relaxing its surveillance of the border with Ceuta, letting over 8,000 migrants pass. Morocco also takes aim at Algeria, which remains the Polisario Front's main supporter, notably by defending at the UN the self-determination of the Berber Kabyle people. Algeria breaks off diplomatic relations entirely, closes its airspace to Moroccan planes, which now have to make a huge detour to travel eastwards, and cuts off gas supplies to the country. Tensions escalate further when 3 Algerian truckers returning from Mauritania are killed by a bombing strike attributed to Morocco as they were passing through the Western Sahara. The following year, Russia's invasion of Ukraine causes energy prices to soar. Algeria, a major exporter of gas and oil, benefits, with its economy being boosted. The country then announces that it will double its military budget in 2023 to almost $23 billion. In parallel with this arms race, the country's president, Abdelmadjid Tebboune, declares that relations with Morocco have reached a point of no return.

The present situation

Today, the situation in Western Sahara is deadlocked. Morocco, which controls 80% of the territory, continues to defend its autonomy plan, which is now supported by 60 countries in the world. On the other hand, 43 countries recognize the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, which is still a member of the African Union. But Morocco is pressing for its exclusion from the organization. At the UN, Western Sahara remains on the list of non-autonomous, i.e., non-decolonized, territories, while Minurso is still responsible for organizing a referendum on self-determination. Finally, some 173,000 Sahrawi refugees are still living in camps near Tindouf.